- Cystic hygroma

- Haemangioma

- Laryngomalacia

- Papillomatosis

- Sub-glottic stenosis

- Tracheal stenosis

- Tracheomalacia

- Bronchomalacia

- Direct trauma (e.g. burns) to the upper airway or surrounding structures can cause airway obstruction

- Vocal cord immobility due to injury during intubation and/or surgery or because of an underlying neurological condition

- Tumors

- Long-term respiratory support

- Neuromuscular conditions